THE EMPEROR
JONES
B+
USA (72 mi) 1933 restored version in
2003 (76 mi) d: Dudley Murphy
O’Neill had got what
no other playwright has—that is, the true authentic Negro psychology. He has read the Negro and has felt the Negro’s
racial tragedy.
As I act, civilization
falls away from me. My plight becomes
real, the horrors terrible facts. I feel
the terror of the slave mart, the degradation of man bought and sold into
slavery. Well, I am the son of an
emancipated slave and the stories of old father are vivid on the tablets of my
memory.
—Paul Robeson
Looka here, little
man! There’s little stealin’ like you
does and there’s big stealing like I does.
For little stealing they get you in jail sooner or later, but for big
stealing they make you emperor and put your picture in the hall of fame after
you croak.
—Emperor Jones (Paul Robeson)
Eugene O’Neill’s one-act play, The Emperor Jones, ran on Broadway in 1920 and was the playwright’s
first major hit, his first venture into an avant-garde style of Expressionism,
and one of the most radical American plays one could ever experience. The work is a distortion of reality,
featuring only two characters, becoming in effect a lengthy 90-minute soliloquy
of a single character recalling a series of flashbacks through a
stream-of-conscious style of memory play, where certainly part of the extreme
racial provocation is the continued use of the word “nigger” throughout
(supposedly more than 30 times), even though it’s spoken by the black lead,
Brutus Jones, where the language is like an eruption from his soul, a kind of
collective subconscious that embodies the history of the black race. O’Neill writes the play in Negro dialect, a
language of the uneducated and unsophisticated, using slang and slavery era style
dialogue to advance a series of complex 20th century ideas and thoughts, which
is a confounding experience for most audiences.
While the immediate reaction is to judge the play by today’s standards,
which would find this method racially insulting and demeaning, but certainly
part of the radically provocative nature of the play is exactly this
intent. Like Mark Twain before him,
O’Neill was one of the first to write plays using American vernacular, and to
involve characters on the fringe of society, where a prominent theme running
throughout his works is how his characters struggle with their hopes and dreams,
eventually sliding into disillusionment and despair, which is precisely what
transpires here. It might help to
understand that two of O’Neill’s favorite books were Jack London’s The Call of the Wild and Joseph Conrad’s
The Heart of Darkness, both of which
figure prominently in the character of Brutus Jones, who becomes a crude
personification of black history. One
might also add the heavily rhythmic and descriptive language of Vachel
Lindsay’s poem The Congo
(opening excerpt):
Fat black bucks in a
wine-barrel room,
Barrel-house kings,
with feet unstable,
[A deep rolling
bass.]
Sagged and reeled and
pounded on the table,
Pounded on the table,
Beat an empty barrel with
the handle of a broom,
Hard as they were
able,
Boom, boom, BOOM,
With a silk umbrella
and the handle of a broom,
Boomlay, boomlay,
boomlay, BOOM.
THEN I had religion,
THEN I had a vision.
I could not turn from
their revel in derision.
[More deliberate. Solemnly chanted.]
THEN I SAW THE CONGO,
CREEPING THROUGH THE BLACK,
CUTTING THROUGH THE
FOREST WITH A GOLDEN TRACK.
Then along that
riverbank
A thousand miles
Tattooed cannibals
danced in files;
Then I heard the boom
of the blood-lust song
[A rapidly piling
climax of speed and racket.]
And a thigh-bone
beating on a tin-pan gong.
And "BLOOD"
screamed the whistles and the fifes of the warriors,
"BLOOD"
screamed the skull-faced, lean witch-doctors,
"Whirl ye the
deadly voo-doo rattle,
Harry the uplands,
Steal all the cattle,
Rattle-rattle,
rattle-rattle,
Bing.
Boomlay, boomlay,
boomlay, BOOM.
Vachel Lindsay, it should be pointed out, is the white son
of a doctor who grew up in Springfield, Illinois across the street from the
Governor’s mansion, where the intention of the poem, like O’Neill’s play,
deliberately imitates the pounding of the drums, where the read out loud
delivery is perhaps more akin to jazz, where it ceases to use conventional
language but instead relies upon sound alone, conjuring up images of Congo’s
indigenous people. As this section of
the poem is under the opening section titled “Their Basic Savagery,” W.E.B.
Du Bois criticized Lindsay’s perpetuation of the “savage African”
stereotype. While the poem may have been
intended as a statement against the kind of racist violence perpetrated by King
Leopold in the Congo, it produced a plethora of criticism calling it
well-meaning but misguided primitivism in its depiction of Africans, indulging
in what was described as “romantic racism.”
While the poem, often performed by Lindsay himself, is often used as an
example of the ignorance about Africa and the racism prevalent in the United States,
it’s also an example of a kind of epic work in the tradition of great American
poets Walt Whitman or Allen Ginsberg.
O’Neill treads this same stereotypical territory of ethnic
study and is subject to the same criticism in this work, especially as the play
both begins and ends in a similar setting of primitive nakedness and the
primordial darkness of the jungle. In
1933, still in the Pre-Code era of cinema, screenwriter Dubose Heyward, author
of the 1925 novel Porgy that inspired
the memorable 1935 opera Porgy and Bess,
reconceived a backdrop and introduced additional characters for a film
adaptation of O’Neill’s play, starring Paul Robeson in the role of Brutus
Jones, who had already starred in theatrical versions of the play since
1925. The Great Depression placed
O'Neill in need of money, so he sold the rights to the play for $30,000 with
the single requirement that the lead be played by Paul Robeson. Shot on Long Island’s Astoria Studios, where
the Marx Brothers filmed THE COCOANUTS (1929) and ANIMAL CRACKERS (1930), there’s
not even a hint of Hollywood in this production, which retains an avant-garde
edginess throughout, led by Robeson’s powerful stage presence, which includes
not only powerful oratory, but also his command of songs. Robeson’s father was a runaway slave from a
North Carolina plantation in 1860, then incredibly worked his way through
college and became a minister, while his son won a scholarship to Rutgers
University in an era when few blacks attended universities other than all-black
institutions. He was Phi Beta Kappa and
an All-American football player, later earning a law degree from Columbia Law
School while playing three years in professional football. Playing the dramatic lead role in legitimate
theater was a first for black actors, where he also went on to play the role of
Othello, while Jerome Kern wrote the song “Ol’ Man River” specifically for him
in the 1927 Broadway smash musical Showboat. Robeson’s powerful performance transcended
the musical, as the dignity and tragic overtones he brought to the role
overshadowed the rest of the show, where Robeson in a minor part became the
main attraction, making the show an enormous hit.
Of note, in Heyward’s film adaptation, O’Neill’s play, which
takes place exclusively on an unnamed Caribbean island, doesn’t even begin
until 51-minutes into a 76-minute movie, adding scenes that showed the life of
Brutus Jones before the island, where he worked as a Pullman porter, showing
his romantic relationships along his route, where these early scenes reflect
Robeson’s intense personal magnetism. Directed
by Dudley Murphy, a white filmmaker who is the only one to ever capture the
great blues singer Bessie Smith on film in his 16-minute short ST. LOUIS BLUES
(1929), while also capturing the music of Duke Ellington in the 20’s,
accompanied by Harlem dancers in BLACK AND TAN (1929). This film is a rare attempt at a collaborative
effort between white intellectuals and black artists, dividing the critics over
the artistic merits and issues of race. In
the opening ten minutes or so of the film, half a dozen styles of black music
are featured, from African chants, to church spirituals, juke joint swing,
1920’s Harlem jazz, West Indies and Gullah island sounds, and eventually even a
chain gang song, where Robeson’s powerful voice is front and center, revealing
an overconfident man with a swagger who always appears sure of himself. Reviewing the rushes, the censors of the Hays
office complained that certain blacks weren’t black enough, where Brutus’s girlfriend
Undine (Fredi Washington) was determined too light-skinned, forcing her to wear
dark make up to avoid being mistaken for white, while the same indignity was
suffered by Manoedi Maskote, a genuine African chief. In a nightclub scene, Billie Holiday is an
uncredited extra, while Harold Nicholas, one-half of the Nicholas Brothers, is
seen doing a solo dance. Perhaps most
amusing is seeing a young 4-foot tall child leading the orchestra before
breaking out into tap himself. But
trouble awaits Brutus in a gambling hall (where we hear James P. Johnson play
“St. Louis Blues” on the piano) when his friend Jeff (Frank Wilson) catches him
cheating at the craps table playing with a pair of loaded dice. His murder gets Brutus sent to a chain gang,
where at his first opportunity (after a song), he beats a guard to death and
escapes on a ship heading to the Caribbean working as a coal shoveler (also
breaking out into song). Fearing arrest
at any port, he jumps ship and swims to a nearby island.
Once washed ashore, he’s immediately captured by black
natives, where his imposing size impresses an unscrupulous white trader,
Smithers (Dudley Digges), the only other character in the original play, who
purchases him outright as his slave.
While Smithers routinely does business with the local tribes, he’s met
his match with Brutus, who is always seen as arrogant and brash, claiming he’s
got a better relationship with the natives on the island than any white man,
where he soon becomes Smithers’ business partner. Again, once the opportunity presents itself,
Brutus stages a coup, pretending to have Voodoo (Black Magic) powers, as he
appears invincible to bullets (having earlier placed blanks in the gun), claiming
only a silver bullet can kill him, making all the natives bow down to him,
disposing of the tribal chief and installing himself on the throne as the
reigning deity, declaring himself God and Emperor of the island. One of his first commands is ordering
Smithers to light his cigarette, where the tables are turned, turning Smithers
into a sniveling weakling, and it’s a white man finally serving a black man,
something utterly inconceivable to most white Americans at the time. However, Brutus develops an unquenchable
thirst for money and power, doubling the taxes on local trade and building
himself an enormous palace, becoming a brutal dictator, which eventually leads
to his own downfall. Boasting how he was
planning to leave anyway, Brutus tells Smithers that he’ll sneak into the
jungle, dig up his buried stash of money, and find a boat back home returning as
a rich man. “Watch out for ghosts,”
Smithers warns him. As he escapes into
the jungle, we hear the eerie sound of drumbeats, which persist throughout the
play, but are only heard in the film during his planned escape. As he gets deeper into the jungle, he goes on
a prolonged jungle monologue continually thinking of himself as better than
these “bush niggers” from the island. He’s
besieged, however, by visions of all the things he’s done wrong in his life,
where in a fever dream he’s forced to confront his internal demons, becoming
terrified at the grotesque hallucinations of tormenting ghosts, firing all his
ammunition at them, literally becoming weak in the knees in a stunning
transformation descending into a Shakespearean King Lear state of madness,
unable to reconcile who he is as opposed to who he should be. Robeson dominates the film from the opening
scene, where his performance is nothing less than enthralling, arguably his
greatest role, bringing a great deal of humanity into the journey of a man
beaming with pride and ambition in the opening, where his singing alone is
simply glorious, but he ends up defeated and crawling alone on the jungle floor
where he’s eventually shot by the natives with a silver bullet, but Smithers
contends his own fears had already killed him.
Due to the racial content, this was a film that few were
able to see at the time, as few theaters would book the film. Many demanded cuts, refusing to show a white
man bowing down to a black man, also cutting out every use of the term
“nigger,” eventually leaving the film in a disassembled state. The Library of Congress restoration team
attempted to piece the film back together again in a 2003 restoration. Still missing are two nightmarish dream sequences
where Brutus recalls being sold into slavery in Africa and the gruesome journey
to America on a slave ship. One must
recall, however, how this play was originally conceived as modernist, a
response to social injustice, where O’Neill created a mythic character where a
black man is completely free and liberated, if only in his mind, where one can
only imagine the impact of seeing that onstage or onscreen at the time, where American
black history is then examined through a near Proustian subconscious rendering
of an unraveling gangster-ghost story taking place in an exotic location, a colonialist
reference to white imperial powers, an oblique reference to Haiti, where if
blacks follow the same exploitive pattern as whites, they’re doomed to the same
failures, where the radical nature of this play’s ambition is simply
mind-boggling. Robeson became
politically involved in the 30’s, fighting against fascism and social
injustice, visiting the battlefront of the Spanish Civil War, advocating the
importance of forming unions in the struggle for economic justice, publicly
calling upon all Americans to demand that Congress pass civil rights
legislation, turning the resignation of the song “Ol’ Man River” into a protest
anthem of utter defiance, but was eventually blacklisted as a subversive in
1950, with many of his movies and recordings removed from public
distribution. Under different
circumstances, we might (and probably should) be talking about Paul Robeson in
the same breath as more familiar black historical icons like Muhammad Ali or
Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1999, the
film was chosen for selection into the National Film Registry.
